The religious life of the Aryans in the later Vedic period underwent significant changes. Changes in the importance of the gods, an Increase in the number and status of priests, the emergence of philosophical theories about the path to mukti, etc. were prominent.
Rise of the Importance of Priests
- In the later Vedic period, the number of Yajna or sacrificial offerings increased. As a result, the importance of priests increased in religious practices.
- Brahmins, as the highest-level priests, were entitled to conduct the complex process of sacrificial offerings.
- With the increase in the complexity and importance of the Yajna, a division of classes emerged again within the priestly community.
- In terms of the responsibility of performing the Yajna rituals, four classes emerged among the priests: Brahmin (high priest), Hotri (invoker), Udgatri (singer) and Adhavaryya (mantra reciter).
Info: Religious beliefs and customs changed during this time.
Gods and Goddesses and Sacrifices
- In the later Vedic period, the status of gods like Vishnu, and Rudra increased instead of the main gods of the early Vedic age like Indra, Agni etc.
- The Rigvedic god Rudra was transformed into Shiva in this period
- In the later Vedic age, another god called ‘Prajapati‘ (Brahma) was found.
- Prajapati Brahma occupied the highest position.
- In the Atharvaveda, Brahma is called the creator and protector of the universe.
- Expensive sacrifices of this time were Rajasuya, Asvamedha, Vajpaya etc.
- Pushan, the protector of cows, is described as a Shudra’s god.
- Important changes can be seen in the sacrifice. From this time, the place of sacrifice became a professional branch. For this, many expert priests were appointed and each sacrifice lasted for many months.
- The yajna was conducted for 12 months.
- The yajna was limited to only three castes. Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas could participate in it. But there was no provision for the Shudras.
- Tapashcarya was established as an important part of religious practice. In the Taittariya Upanishad, ‘Tapa’ is mentioned as Brahma.
- Long periods of fasting and suffering were part of Tapashcarya.
- In the Upanishads, the first question was raised about the creation of the world. The meaning of life, life after death, etc were discussed in Upanishads.
- As a result of all these philosophical thoughts, the ideas of the Supreme Soul (Brahma), the soul, reincarnation, and the results of karma developed.
Info: The god Prajapati was the symbol of all sacrifices.
Origin of Philosophical Thought
- Vedic literature Aranyaka, Upanishads reveal that in later ages, the main goal of the Vedic Aryans was ‘moksha‘.
- Mmukti or moksha is described in the Aranya through meditation, in the Atharvaveda through Sannyas, and in the commentary of Patanjali through yoga.
- People believed that moksha was possible only by seeing Brahma or attaining Brahma.
- Patanjali emphasized the practice of ‘yoga’ to balance the effects of karma and prevent rebirth.
- In this regard, Patanjali was the first to talk about some physical exercises including pranayama.
- In the ‘Kena’ Upanishad, it is said that God is Omnipotent, Omnipresent and Omniscient.
- In the later Vedic period, a new philosophy emerged on karma and transmigration.
- People of this time started believing in the concept of karma.
- According to this philosophy, people experience the result of karma or action of this life in the next life.
Info: Freedom from the bonds surrounding birth and death is ‘Moksha‘.
Charvaka Philosophy
- Towards the end of the later Vedic period, a new school of thought emerged against yajna and sacrifice.
- The materialist philosophy of sage Uddalaka also deeply influenced many people of that era.
- This materialist philosophy says that there is no such thing as God, next life, or soul; everything ends with death.
- Later, Charvaka explains this theory in a more detailed way that the body is not reborn after death.
- Therefore, the search for mukti by denying the body or life is hopeless.
- This explanation of Charvaka is known as the Dehavadi (materialist) theory in Indian philosophy.
Info: Uddalaka Muni spoke of materialist philosophy by giving a unique interpretation of the Upanishads.
Info: Later, the Brahminical monopoly was exploiting everybody in the society. Brahmins made the lives of ordinary people miserable. As a result, a new concept of religion developed as a form of Buddhism and Jainism.
Religious Superstitions
- Although there is a high-level philosophy like the ‘Moksha’ theory of the Upanishads or the materialist theory of Charvaka, at the same time, evil spirits like Nagas, Yakshas, etc. arise in society.
- In the name of religion, superstitions increase in society.
- With the increase in the number of Yajnas, the complexity of religious activities and superstitions also increases.
- Tantric practices were also developed during this period.